Englishization of Education: A Critical Look at Africa and Asia

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Introduction

Globalization as a pivotal tendency of the 21st century has brought about a paradigm shift in the educational sphere, with the English language emerging as a dominant factor in academic life and the labor market. This phenomenon, often referred to as “Englishization”, has had far-reaching implications for the majority of educational systems in so many different corners of the world, particularly in terms of promoting internationalization. As institutions in Africa and Asia strive to position themselves on the international stage and prepare graduates for their future employers’ demands, many have turned to English Medium Instruction (EMI) as a means of achieving these important career-defining goals.

The term EMI is ubiquitous in contemporary pedagogical discourse. It presupposes the use of English as the primary language of instruction in non-English speaking countries. EMI has long been embraced by a constantly growing number of universities and schools across Africa and Asia. The adoption of this phenomenon is driven by a range of factors, including the desire to attract international students, enhance competitiveness, and equip future professionals with the language skills necessary to succeed in a modern knowledge-based economy. However, the implementation of EMI is not without its challenges. The debate surrounding its effectiveness and impact on educational systems remains ongoing, especially concerning linguistic identity and cultural heritage.

This article aims to study the execution and challenges of EMI in Africa and Asia, with a view to contributing to the discourse on international education. By exploring the motivations behind EMI adoption and evaluating its influence on various national culturally specific educational systems, this article seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon of EMI and the significance of Englishization in these regions.

The research questions this article will try to answer are as follows:

1. How have the EMI practices evolved in the educational space of Africa and Asia, and what are their primary drivers?
2. What motivates these regions to adopt EMI policies?
3. What problems do institutions face when implementing EMI, and how do these challenges vary based on culturally specific environments?
4. What strategies can stakeholders employ to address the challenges of EMI and enhance its chances for success, taking into account all the different needs and backgrounds of learners in Africa and Asia?

Literature Review

Understanding the Terminology: Englishization, Internationalization, and EMI. When discussing the global trends in education, it is important to clarify the distinctions between the most common terms which are “Englishization”, “Internationalization”, and “English as a Medium of Instruction”. These concepts are deeply interrelated, referring to different aspects of the gradually transforming field of contemporary education.

Internationalization is the broadest term that encompasses the process of integrating both international and cross-cultural aspects into the purpose, functions, and delivery of education [1]. It includes a wide range of activities, e.g., student and faculty exchange programs, international research collaborations, the development of globally universal curricula. The ultimate goal of internationalization is to prepare students for a successful career in the international job market and also to enhance the quality and relevance of their professional education.

Englishization, on the other hand, specifically refers to the increasing use of English as the language of instruction and academic communication in an environment populated by non-native speakers¹. It is narrower in its semantics, being a subset of internationalization, driven by the recognition of English as the primary language in the communicative spheres of science, academia, business, and professional cooperation. Englishization is often seen as a way to facilitate internationalization by providing a common language for learning and interaction [2].

Due to the internationalization of higher education [3], there has been a rise in programs using English as a language of instruction in non-English speaking countries² [4]. This has resulted in a variety of approaches, including Content-Based Instruction (CBI)³, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)⁴, English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI)⁵, and Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education (ICLHE)⁶. These approaches can be positioned along a continuum, where CBI and CLIL focus more on the results of language learning while EMI and ICLHE emphasize particular subject instruction⁷ [5].

English as a Medium of Instruction is a specific term within the scope of internationalization used to describe the practice of teaching subjects in English in countries where English is not the first language⁸. EMI is a key aspect of Englishization in education because it involves the use of English as the primary language for teaching and learning, rather than just as a subject of study [4]. EMI programs are often implemented in universities to attract international students, improve students’ command of English, and prepare them for future careers and professional activities⁹.

It is also important to note that even though Englishization and EMI are closely connected, they are not synonymous. Englishization refers to the broader trend of increasing the use of English in education. EMI, on the other hand, specifically describes the practice of teaching subjects through English¹⁰. Furthermore, Englishization can occur in various forms, e.g., the use of English-language textbooks and resources, even in programs where the primary language of instruction is not English [6].

Other related terms include the above-mentioned Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), which is an approach where academic material is taught in a foreign language, with a focus on both language and discipline learning¹¹. CLIL is often used in secondary education and can involve languages other than English [7].

Translanguaging is another concept that has gained attention in the context of Englishization and EMI [8; 9]. It presupposes the pedagogical practice of using many languages in the classroom to ease learning and communication¹². Translanguaging recognizes the linguistic diversity of students and aims to create inclusive learning environments where all languages and cultures represented by the participants of the educational process are openly valued.

Although internationalization, Englishization, and EMI are closely related, they represent different aspects of the multilayered process of making education truly globalized. Thus, it is important to consider the implications of these trends for linguistic diversity, educational equity, and the quality of learning outcomes [10].

Englishization of Education. The Englishization of education is understandably a growing trend around the world. In Africa, Asia, and other regions, universities and schools are adopting EMI to not just enhance students’ employability but also put ticks in other very important boxes – attracting international students and high-status faculty, improving access to major research networks and scientific communities, brushing up institutional rankings and overall prestige¹³. For example, in China, the number of universities offering EMI courses has soared in recent years, with over 1,000 universities now providing such programs [11]. In Japan, the government set a goal of having 300,000 international students by 2020, leading to a surge in EMI courses offered by the country’s universities [12].

However, this trend is not without its challenges and criticisms. Nit-pickers argue that Englishization may undermine local languages and cultures, which in turn may lead to the marginalization of indigenous languages in schools and universities¹⁴. For instance, in South Korea, where EMI is widespread, there are concerns that the emphasis on English may cause a decline in the use and status of the Korean language in academia [13]. There are also concerns about the potential creation of linguistic hierarchies and social inequalities, as well as the challenges faced by students and teachers who may not be proficient enough in English [10]. In India, for example, students from rural areas or disadvantaged backgrounds may struggle with EMI because of their limited exposure to English in everyday life and the resulting lack of language practice¹⁵.

Furthermore, the use of a foreign language in education may provoke the loss of local knowledge and even local context¹⁶. In Malaysia, where EMI is being implemented for various subject disciplines, there is a perception that the use of English can lead to a disconnect between the curriculum and local cultural and objectively existing social realities outside the classroom [14].

From a pedagogical perspective, Englishization requires significant changes in teaching methodologies and materials. School teachers and university professors must not only be prepared language-wise but also properly equipped with best authentic up-to-date textbooks to teach complex subjects in English. Students, on the other hand, need constant support to learn both the content and the language simultaneously [4]. In the Netherlands, for example, some universities have addressed this challenge by providing special language support programs and encouraging the use of translanguaging, which allow for the integration of Dutch and English in the educational process¹⁷.

Stakeholders, namely those in power (i.e., policymakers and administrators of educational institutions), are tasked with balancing the benefits of Englishization with the need to preserve linguistic diversity and ensure equitable access to education. This typically involves a number of measures: developing clear language policies that support multilingualism, providing teacher training and resources for EMI, creating language support programs for students, and encouraging research on the impact of Englishization on learning outcomes¹⁸. In South Africa, for example, the government has introduced a language policy that promotes the use of both English and local languages in education to ensure that all students have access to quality education [15].

As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the Englishization of education is likely to continue. However, there is growing advocacy for a more inclusive approach that values all languages and cultures¹⁹. This includes the integration of local languages in EMI programs, which in itself may sound a bit contradictory to the essence of EMI, and the adoption of translanguaging.

All things considered, the Englishization of education is a complex issue that reflects the tensions between globalization and local identity. While it offers opportunities for international cross-cultural collaboration and access to global knowledge, it also poses challenges that require thoughtful and inclusive educational strategies to ensure that the benefits are realized while minimizing the potential negative influences on linguistic diversity and educational equity [6].

The process of synthesizing the existing literature on the Englishization of education in Africa and Asia presents several noteworthy problems. The sheer volume of publications covering extensive and versatile geographical areas, cultural specificities, and different educational levels necessitate a careful selection and a narrow focused approach. Another problem is in the abundant and sometimes inconsistent terminology used in this field, which requires careful interpretations and clarifications of viable concepts such as “Englishization”, “EMI”, and “Internationalization”.

Despite the extensive body of research, several crucial questions remain underexplored if not unanswered. The long-term influence of EMI on students’ academic achievements, career trajectories, the development and evaluation of effective pedagogical strategies created specifically for EMI, optimal approaches to balancing the benefits of English with the preservation and promotion of local languages in education as well as far-reaching societal consequences demand sustained scholarly attention and further investigation. The lack of a unified overview has left crucial and concerning knowledge gaps. Thus, a comprehensive and critical review of the existing literature is essential to inform effective policymaking and pedagogical practices concerning Englishization. This study aims to contribute to this need by providing a more systematic understanding of the field.

Materials and Methods

This article employs a qualitative research approach to explore the phenomenon of Englishization and English Medium Instruction in Africa and Asia. The qualitative design is chosen specifically to obtain a deep understanding of the motivations, challenges, and implications associated with the deliberate Englishization of education and the adoption of EMI, emphasizing the perspectives and experiences documented in existing literature and secondary sources. The study involves a comprehensive review and thematic analysis of relevant academic publications, policy documents, educational reports, and case studies.

Data Collection. A systematic search was conducted using popular electronic database Google Scholar. The following keywords were used to identify relevant sources: “English Medium Instruction”, “Internationalization of education”, “English as a Lingua Franca”, “Translanguaging”, “Linguistic identity”, “Linguistic diversity” and “Educational equity”. The literature review aimed to identify key themes, theoretical frameworks, and empirical studies relevant to the research questions. Additionally, official policy documents and reports from educational institutions and government bodies were reviewed to analyze the official stance and guidelines on EMI.

The study relies solely on secondary data obtained from various above-mentioned sources which provided comprehensive information on the motivations behind adopting EMI, the perceived benefits and challenges of EMI, the impact of EMI on students’ linguistic and academic outcomes, strategies employed to support students in an EMI context, and views on linguistic diversity and cultural identity in relation to EMI in part and Englishization in general.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria. The selection of materials was guided by specific inclusion criteria. Publications between 2000 and 2024 were considered to capture the most recent trends and discussions. Studies that directly addressed the implementation and impact of EMI in Africa and Asia were included, along with policy documents outlining national or institutional language-in-education strategies and reports providing empirical data on student and teacher experiences with EMI.

Materials were excluded if they were not available in English or did not provide an English translation, did not directly relate to the themes of EMI, internationalization, Englishization or language policy, or were opinion pieces lacking empirical evidence.

Sampling Method. Given the large number of initial search results, a multi-step sampling method was used to reduce the dataset to a manageable and representative sample:

1. Refinement of search criteria (7 initial keywords were further narrowed down and advanced search filters were used to limit results by publication date, document type, and subject area, then keywords were combined with Boolean operators to filter out less relevant studies).
2. Systematic sampling (after refining the search, the results were sorted by relevance in Google Scholar and the first 200 articles were selected for further review).
3. Manual screening (titles and abstracts of the previously selected articles were reviewed to ensure they met the inclusion criteria. Articles were excluded if they did not align with the study’s focus on EMI in Africa and Asia).
4. Supplemental searches (which were conducted to fill gaps in themes or geographical coverage, ensuring a comprehensive representation of the literature. This included searching for specific policy documents, educational reports, and case studies that provided detailed explanations of EMI implementation in different countries. For example, policy documents from the Ministry of Education in China and educational reports from Unesco were included to provide a broader view of the challenges and opportunities associated with EMI. By incorporating these sources, the study aims to provide a more detailed picture of the specific problems and successes of Englishization and EMI in Africa and Asia. This approach ensures that the analysis is grounded in real-world examples and provides practical data on the implementation of EMI in regions with different historical, cultural, and educational backgrounds).

Data Analysis. The collected data (171 publications) were analyzed using thematic analysis which is a method suitable for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data. The analysis followed the six-phase approach [16]:

1. Familiarization with the data (reading and re-reading the selected secondary sources to become deeply familiar with the content).
2. Generating initial codes (coding interesting features of the data systematically across the entire data set).
3. Searching for themes (collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme).
4. Reviewing themes (checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts and the entire data set).
5. Defining and naming themes (ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme and the whole story that the analysis tells, ascribing clear definitions and names to each theme).
6. Producing the report (the final opportunity for analysis, including selecting vivid and compelling extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating the analysis back to the research questions and literature, and producing a scholarly report of the analysis).

To ensure the reliability and validity of the findings, triangulation was used by means of cross-referencing data from multiple secondary sources. This approach helped to confirm the consistency and robustness of the identified themes.

Limitations. The study acknowledges its limitations, including the potential for bias in the selection of sources for the empirical material and the interpretation of data. The reliance on published literature also means that the findings are subject to the availability and accessibility of information.

While this study aims to provide an overview of Englishization in both Africa and Asia, it focuses more heavily on the African countries, particularly Sub-Saharan and North Africa, due to the rich empirical data available in the study’s dataset and the unique postcolonial linguistic situation in these regions. The Asian regional context is addressed more broadly, with a focus on countries that have been at the forefront of EMI implementation and extensively covered in the empirical material of the study, i.e., China, Japan, India, and Indonesia.

Future research could expand on the experiences of other African and Asian countries to provide a more comprehensive picture of Englishization across the chosen regions. Further studies could also expand the scope by incorporating primary empirical data and employing mixed methods to triangulate the data even more.

Results

Scientific Discourse of Englishization and EMI: Thematic Analysis. One of the indisputable advantages of Englishization and the use of English as a medium of instruction is that they contribute greatly to cross-cultural communication and cooperation in professional, academic, and scientific spheres. That’s why many countries happily adopt EMI policies in their educational systems, particularly at the tertiary level.

Although EMI offers myriads of opportunities for international collaboration and improved employability, it also presents considerable challenges related to language proficiency, cultural sensitivity, and the potential marginalization of local languages and cultures. The undertaken thematic analysis of the empirical material explores the complexities of EMI policies and practices, having its focus on the newly formed interrelationships between English and local languages, the influence on cultural identities, and the implications for education. The empirical data covers all major genres of research publications (e.g., literature reviews, case studies, survey researches, policy analyses, and discourse analyses) and encompasses a wide range of theoretical frameworks (e.g., language policy and planning theory, critical discourse analysis, postcolonial theory, sociocultural theory, complexity theory) and methodological approaches (e.g., mixed-methods research designs, longitudinal studies, comparative case studies, critical discourse analysis, ethnographic research). The thematic study allows to single out the following common themes which build up the current discourse on Englishization.

Theme 1: The role and status of English in education systems around the world. A considerable amount of the studied sources discusses the general issue of the growing prominence of English as a medium of instruction in educational systems around the world, especially in higher education. Besides internationalization, this trend is driven by factors like perceived economic and social benefits of English proficiency²⁰ [1] and language policies favouring English [10]. However, the growth of EMI is uneven across regions, with some countries like South Korea [13] and China [11] embracing it way more than others. The role of English also intersects with post-colonial language politics in many African and Asian countries²¹.

The most prominent subthemes include motivations and realities of EMI implementation [1; 11; 13]; challenges and issues with EMI, such as inadequate teacher training and student proficiency²² [2; 17]; pedagogy, policy, and practice of EMI in different contexts²³ [12].

Theme 2: Language-in-education policies and mother tongue instruction. Many sources highlight ongoing debates and problematic issues around the so-called language-in-education policies, especially regarding the role of the native or local languages versus English or other dominant languages²⁴ [18; 19]. Specifically, research explores language policy in certain specific geographical areas and cultures [20; 21]. Some argue for greater mother tongue-based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) to improve learning outcomes and cultural preservation²⁵ [22; 23]. However, implementation of MTB-MLE policies often falls short in practice due to factors like lack of teacher training, learning materials or supportive language attitudes²⁶ [24]. The disjuncture between official language policies and actual classroom practices is a common theme [25].

Among the subthemes the most notable are colonial legacies and the role of English in education²⁷ [14]. Challenges in implementing mother tongue instruction policies²⁸ are also prominent [18; 23]. Several studies examine language policy and practice within specific countries in Africa, illustrating diverse approaches and challenges in South Africa [15; 19], Malaysia [14], and Algeria [20]. Kouicem K., for example, discusses the challenges of promoting English in Algeria’s education while also attempting to strengthen the use of Arabic and Berber languages [20]. Similarly, Boukadi S. and Troudi S. analyze the language policies in post-revolution Tunisia, highlighting the ongoing debates around the role of English, French, and Arabic in the country’s educational institutions²⁹. These discussions show how difficult it is to deal with the tensions between current trends and local needs [18; 19].

Theme 3: English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and implications for language teaching. Several analyzed sources draw on the concept of English as a lingua franca to critically examine goals and practices in English language teaching. ELF research shows the different ways English is used as a global contact language, often among non-native speakers, challenging notions of standard English and native speaker norms [26; 27]. This has implications for how English is taught, such as greater emphasis on cross-cultural communication skills, multilingual repertoires, and negotiation strategies³⁰ [2]. However, the uptake of ELF research in pedagogy remains limited.

The subthemes encompass modelling intercultural awareness through ELF³¹ [28]; characteristics and functions of ELF in communication³² [26; 27]; repositioning English in relation to multilingualism³³ [27].

Theme 4: Marginalization of local languages and the potential loss of linguistic diversity. The expansion of EMI has raised a number of well-voiced concerns³⁴. Several authors argue that the dominance of English in education can lead to the neglect of local languages and a decrease in multilingualism³⁵ [14]. For example, Maniates S. discusses the challenges of implementing mother tongue instruction policies in Sub-Saharan Africa, where the push for English-medium education has led to a dramatic lack of investment in local language instruction³⁶. Similarly, Gill S. K. highlights the reversal of language policies in Malaysia, where the initial emphasis on Malay as the language of teaching has been shifting towards English due to economic and political pressures [14].

Popular subthemes are predetermined by the existing concerns and feature preserving local languages and cultures in education³⁷ [22] and balancing English with other languages in higher education³⁸ [29]. Another key subtheme emerging from the sources is the impact on students’ identity construction. Ahmed K. argues that the use of English in Arab countries often involves the casting of Arabic culture as the “other”, leading to a form of cultural imperialism that undermines local cultural values³⁹. This is further complicated by the cultural backgrounds of students and professors in EMI classrooms, particularly in internationalized universities⁴⁰ [6; 28]. Baker W. emphasizes the need for intercultural awareness, arguing that English as a lingua franca provides an opportunity to develop a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to language education⁴¹ [28]. He suggests that EMI classrooms can become spaces for intercultural dialogue and mutual understanding, where students and teachers engage with multiple cultural perspectives. However, this requires a shift in focus from a monolingual, monocultural model of language education to one that embraces linguistic and cultural diversity⁴² [6; 28]. The selected sources also discuss the potential for EMI to contribute to the construction and performance of identities⁴³. Ramanathan V. explores the complex identity negotiations of students and teachers in multilingual environments, highlighting the ways in which people walk around the English-vernacular divide and construct the so-called hybrid identities⁴⁴. Byram M. emphasizes the importance of intercultural competence which involves the ability of students to understand and verbally interact with others coming from different cultural backgrounds⁴⁵.

Theme 5: Challenges and strategies for effective EMI implementation. As EMI expands, many sources discuss the challenges involved in its effective implementation. These include students’ and teachers’ English proficiency levels, teaching methodologies, availability of resources, cultural and stereotypical language attitudes, biases, and ideologies [4]. Strategies proposed to address these challenges include enhanced teacher training and professional development, curriculum integration, multilingual and translanguaging approaches, language support services⁴⁶. Some argue for greater synergy between EMI and English for Academic Purposes [2]. Scholars emphasize the need for contextualized understanding of EMI rather than a one-size-fits-all approach⁴⁷.

Theme 6: Teacher training and capacity building. A number of publications dig into the importance of teacher preparation for proper English-language and local-language instruction [22; 30]. For example, Madiba M. discusses the challenges faced by the University of Cape Town in South Africa as it transitioned to multilingual education, including the need for improved teacher training and support [15]. Similarly, Piper B. et al. emphasize the importance of teacher training and pedagogical support for successful mother tongue instruction [23]. Improving pre-service teacher training for local languages [24] and building teacher capacity for mother-tongue instruction⁴⁸ are among the subthemes concerning the problems of language acquisition, language assessment, and language teaching methodologies, covered by the empirical material of this study.

Theme 7: Translanguaging and multilingual approaches in EMI. An emerging theme is the role of translanguaging and multilingual teaching practices, challenging the English-only approach. Studies show how students and teachers draw on their multilingual repertoires strategically to learn more effectively and communicate successfully, even in supposed English-only classrooms⁴⁹. Scholars argue in favour of intentionally leveraging students’ multilingualism as a resource through translanguaging pedagogy and policies that support more “fluid” language use cases⁵⁰ [15]. This aligns with broader calls to view EMI from a multilingual rather than a monolingual lens⁵¹.

Figure helps visualize the current state of the research discourse on Englishization in regards to African and Asian countries. A strong emphasis is made on policy-related issues and practical challenges in implementing EMI. The dominant themes reflect serious concerns about properly balancing English with local languages and effective teaching strategies. The lesser-emphasized themes, though important, reveal potential areas for further research and attention.

F i g u r e. Thematic Distribution of Empirical Material, %

Source: Compiled by the author.

One of the significant limitations of the research covered by the empirical material of this study is the lack of diversity in terms of methodology. The majority of the analyzed sources rely on literature reviews and case studies, which provide a limited perspective on the multilayered problem of Englishization and EMI. There is a need for more methodological approaches, such as mixed-methods research designs, longitudinal studies, and ethnographic research, to provide a more comprehensive and holistic picture.

Moreover, the studied sources tend to focus on the macro-level aspects, neglecting the micro-level interactions and experiences of teachers and students involved in EMI practices. There is an objective need for more research that would explore the complexities at the classroom level.

The focus on the short-term effects of Englishization is another problem of current research as it neglects the long-term impact on student learning outcomes and the higher education sector as a whole. Ideally, more studies should concentrate on the long-term consequences of Englishization, primarily including its impact on student employability, academic achievement, and social mobility.

English-Based Education in Africa and Asia: Regional Specifics. Sub-Saharan Africa. The significant influence of the language of instruction on students’ learning pathways and academic achievements is undeniable. As for Sub-Saharan Africa, the widespread use of English as the primary language in education can be traced back to the colonial period. During this era, European powers established educational frameworks that prioritized their own languages, i.e., English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. The policies adopted by these colonial administrations varied. Some, like those in Uganda, South Africa, and Nigeria, initially permitted the use of African languages in education for early learners. On the other hand, French and Portuguese colonies mandated the exclusive use of their respective languages⁵².

However, an extremely small number of qualified teachers fluent in African languages, coupled with the limited development of these languages for modern-day academic purposes, ultimately led to the ascendance of European languages as the dominant media of instruction. It has had a profound and lasting impact, creating a disconnect between formal education and the everyday lives of many students, and presenting considerable obstacles to achieving fairness and quality in education.

The reliance on European languages in education has preconditioned an inequitable system, favoring a select group of students who have exposure to these languages outside of school. This fact disadvantages the majority, whose native languages are African. The historically created linguistic divide contributes to disparities in educational access and success, as learners struggle to understand and engage with educational content delivered in a foreign language.

Empirical evidence consistently gathered in this study underscores the advantages of instruction in one’s first language, especially in the early years of schooling. When students learn in a language they understand well, their ability to grasp fundamental concepts, cultivate critical thinking abilities, and engage in meaningful learning is significantly enhanced. Furthermore, using the mother tongue stimulates a more inclusive learning environment, recognizing and valuing all the different linguistic backgrounds of students [19].

All over Sub-Saharan Africa, language-in-education policies exhibit considerable diversity. Although some nations have voiced support for integrating African languages into their educational systems, the practical implementation of these policies remains inconsistent. This has resulted in a situation where millions of learners face significant barriers to high-quality education because of language differences. The absence of a unified and comprehensive strategy regarding language in education continues to fuel inequalities and impedes the full academic development of students.

The overarching goals of Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) policies in Sub-Saharan African nations are far-reaching. They often include promoting instruction in the mother tongue during the initial years of primary education, which is then followed by a subsequent gradual shift to English as the primary medium of instruction in higher grades. Examples of countries with such policies include Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, and South Africa⁵³ [25]. Nevertheless, the execution of these policies has encountered hurdles, including inadequate teacher training in local languages [18; 22; 24], limited literacy among teachers in these languages⁵⁴, a primary emphasis on English proficiency in teacher education programs⁵⁵, insufficient exposure of students to English, and resistance from stakeholders, including teachers’ unions and parents [23], as well as discrepancies between teachers’ linguistic proficiency and students’ first languages.

A promising solution to the aforementioned problems in Sub-Saharan Africa lies in adopting a multilingual approach to education. This strategy would acknowledge the region’s linguistic richness and aim to reap the benefits of both English and African languages to improve educational results. By valuing learners’ native languages and providing opportunities for their development alongside English, a multilingual framework has the potential to create a more just and inclusive educational system.

North Africa. All over North Africa, a notably transformative shift towards integrating English as the primary language for instruction in higher education is gaining momentum, particularly in such countries as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt. This increasing pervasiveness is largely fueled by the widely held belief that English language skills provide a considerable advantage in the global economy and ever-so competitive job market⁵⁶. Despite these perceived benefits, this transition to English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) has sparked debate regarding its influence on linguistic identity, the standing of the Arabic language, and a perceived gap in research exploring the consequences of EMI in bilingual and multilingual communicative situations.

For instance, although French remains the established language of teaching at Moroccan universities, the strategic importance of English is well recognized by students, especially for scientific research, pursuing academic opportunities abroad, and improvement of career prospects. The advocacy of King Mohamed VI for an educational language policy that promotes the incorporation of foreign languages, with a particular emphasis on English, in the higher education sector has further amplified the growing enthusiasm for EMI among both institutions of higher education and learners.

A similar trajectory is evident in Algeria, where governmental decisions have led to the introduction of English in middle schools and its implementation as a medium of instruction for specific university programs [20]. This “Englishization”, as perceived by many teachers and students, is viewed as a crucial step forward towards elevating university rankings and boosting the volume of published scholarly articles [21].

Tunisia is also witnessing a rise in the prominence of English in its national educational system, gradually gaining traction relative to both Arabic (the first language) and French (the second language) in schools⁵⁷. This trend extends to higher education as well, with certain universities initiating EMI syllabi and incorporating English-language courses. Tunisian university faculty and students acknowledge the necessity of improving their English language proficiency. At the same time, they also concurrently emphasize the fundamental role of both Arabic and French in making up their cultural identity⁵⁸.

The adoption of EMI in Egypt is underpinned by a confluence of historical factors, economic imperatives, and unique cultural considerations. English enjoys a position of social prestige, as proficiency is often linked to better employment opportunities in the lucrative private sector and facilitates international study or work prospects [31]. However, the implementation of EMI in Egyptian universities has generated concerns related to student engagement and academic performance. Students transitioning from Arabic-medium secondary schools frequently face problems upon entering EMI universities, potentially encountering native English-speaking instructors or Arabic-speaking teachers who may exhibit negative attitudes to incorporating Arabic into the teaching process.

Several problems and ramifications have emerged as a consequence of EMI implementation in North Africa. A significant concern revolves around the influence of EMI on the preservation of linguistic identity and the status of the Arabic language. Some educators question the broader societal effects of EMI⁵⁹ and its implications for the prominence of indigenous languages like Arabic⁶⁰. Despite this, the notion that English provides the optimal medium for education appears largely unquestioned in this region. Such perspective, however, contrasts with the argument put forth by Skutnabb-Kangas, who contends that EMI represents a potent force of linguistic genocide⁶¹.

The fast-paced introduction of EMI in some North African nations has highlighted a gap in teacher preparedness for this pedagogical shift. Effective professional development programs are essential to adequately support educators with limited experience or training in using English for subject delivery [21]. This lack of teacher readiness and insufficient training can impede the successful implementation of EMI and negatively affect student learning results. As a result, it is essential for policymakers and educational institutions in North Africa to thoughtfully evaluate the wide-ranging linguistic, social, and educational consequences of implementing English as a medium of instruction. A well-rounded approach that prioritizes both the development of English skills and the safeguarding of local languages is vital for long-term success.

Asia. The growing use of English as a global means of communication, or as a Lingua Franca (ELF), has changed perspectives on what effective communication actually entails. This shift empowers individuals who don’t speak English as their first language to confidently use English in their own unique ways. In Asia, English-Medium Instruction programs, where local professors deliver lectures in English as a second language, present a compelling and more accessible alternative for nurturing globally recognized talents⁶² compared to universities in traditionally English-speaking nations.

Driven by their fast-paced economic expansion, Asian countries have launched ambitious initiatives focused on developing skilled workforces. This has prompted policymakers to advocate for greater internationalization in education systems at all levels. Taiwan, for instance, initiated its EMI programs around 2013, marked by the Ministry of Education introducing policies aimed at attracting international students. This was followed by a commitment to implement bilingual education in the mandatory schooling system [17]. Similar endeavors to promote English-medium education are underway in other Asian nations, including Japan, China, Vietnam, and Malaysia.

Over the last twenty years, Chinese universities have significantly expanded their EMI programs. This qualitative trend has been driven by numerous factors, including the push for internationalization and the desire to improve university rankings, as well as the perceived advantages in both language acquisition and subject-specific learning [32]. As a result, EMI has become particularly dominant in China’s leading institutions of higher education.

The Chinese government has launched several important initiatives aimed at internationalizing higher education and increase its competitiveness, e.g., Project 985, Project 211, and the Double First Class program [12; 33; 34]. Project 211, which began in 1995, was China’s first major effort to elevate the standards of higher education to the expectations of the 21st century. Though not explicitly focused on EMI, it laid the groundwork for increased international collaboration and exchange, indirectly promoting the use of English in academic environments [11]. Project 985, initiated in 1998, had a more direct impact on implementing EMI. This elite program, aimed at creating world-class universities, provided substantial funding for selected institutions to internationalize their curricula, attract foreign faculty, and also encourage academic publishing in the English language [35]. As a result, many Project 985 universities became pioneers in offering EMI courses and programs. The Double First Class initiative was announced in 2015. It further intensified the push for EMI in Chinese higher education. This program’s aim is to develop internationally acclaimed highly prestigious universities and well-demanded disciplines by 2050⁶³. The initiative has led to a dramatic increase in EMI offerings.

However, multiple issues and challenges such as varying English proficiency levels among students and teachers, the need for specialized EMI pedagogy and teaching methodology, concerns about the potential erosion of Chinese as an academic language have been widely reported⁶⁴ [11]. The concentration of resources in elite institutions has led to an uneven distribution of EMI opportunities. On the one hand, top universities have been able to implement extensive EMI programs. On the other hand, many second and third-tier institutions struggle to offer quality EMI courses due to limited resources and expertise [36].

The Englishization of Chinese higher education, driven by these national initiatives, reflects the country’s ambition to integrate into the global academic community and enhance its soft power. At the same time, it also raises unavoidable questions about linguistic equity and the preservation of Chinese academic traditions [37; 38]. 

The Englishization of higher education in Japan has similarly seen a significant acceleration over the past decade [12]. Just like in China, this trend has been largely promoted by government initiatives aimed at internationalizing Japanese universities and attracting more international students, e.g., the Global 30 Project and its successor, the Top Global University Project [4]. While these programs have significantly accelerated the formal implementation of EMI, it’s important to acknowledge that numerous Japanese universities, including national, public, and private institutions, were already offering English-taught courses prior to these initiatives⁶⁵ [39–41].

In India, the Englishization of education has a long and complicated history, deeply rooted in the country’s colonial past and its current aspirations for international prestige and global competitiveness. English has been an official language in India since the country’s independence. Its role in education has been steadily growing⁶⁶. The National Education Policy 2020 has further emphasized the importance of multilingualism and the use of English alongside regional languages in education⁶⁷. Nevertheless, the implementation of EMI in India encounters problems, seen in other countries and regions promoting EMI, e.g., socioeconomic disparities, varying levels of English proficiency among students and teachers, concerns about the preservation of indigenous languages and cultures [42]. Despite these challenges, EMI continues to expand in Indian higher education, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), driven by the perceived benefits of enhanced global employability and access to international academic resources.

Indonesia has also witnessed a significant push towards Englishization in its education system, particularly in higher education. The government has implemented various policies to promote EMI, such as the International Standard School program. It aimed to establish schools offering bilingual education in an attempt to attract foreign students, popularize English and improve its command among younger generations, while adopting international curricula and teaching methods⁶⁸. However, this program was discontinued in 2013 due to concerns about educational inequality and the potential marginalization of the Indonesian language [43]. Despite this setback, many universities in Indonesia continue to provide EMI programs, especially in disciplines with strong international orientations [44]. The implementation of EMI in Indonesia faces problems similar to those in other Asian countries, e.g., limited English proficiency among students and teachers, inadequate resources, and also motivated concerns about the Englishization’s impact on national identity and local language⁶⁹. Still, the demand for English-medium education remains high, which is explained by the perceived advantages in the global labor market and opportunities for international academic collaboration⁷⁰.

All things considered, despite considerable funding allocated by Asian governments to advance bilingual education, key obstacles for English-Medium Instruction programs persist⁷¹ [30]. A major impediment stems from the widespread misunderstanding among those involved regarding the function of English. Rather than embracing an English as a Lingua Franca framework, a tendency to favor native-speaker norms remains dominant⁷² [29; 45]. Furthermore, the varying English language abilities of students, encompassing both local and international learners, presents another problem, which necessitates extra assistance for academic skill development and the acquisition of discipline-specific vocabulary. Some instructors show reluctance to adjust their instructional language, perceiving EMI as a potential impediment to student comprehension and the depth of material covered.

The development of EMI in Asia presents both opportunities and difficulties in raising global talent. Although the persistence of a “native English speaker” ideal and language-based hurdles create significant obstacles, current theoretical advancements offer new perspectives on leveraging the power of multilingualism, translanguaging practices, and incorporating different modes of communication to enhance EMI implementation. As Asian nations continue their commitment to promoting bilingual education, it becomes essential to revise existing English education policies to accurately reflect the inherent multilingualism of the contemporary ELF.

Discussion and Conclusion

The research presented in this article covers the complex phenomenon of Englishization in the educational systems of Africa and Asia. The adoption of EMI in this region is driven by a considerable number of such historically and culturally interconnected reason as globalization, economic aspirations, and powerful national ambitions for the country’s recognition abroad. A significant change in pedagogical approaches has been conspicuous for several decades. Although the pursuit of international integration and enhanced employability serves as a potent catalyst for EMI implementation, the undertaken analysis of secondary sources confirms that this transition is far from straightforward and presents a wide array of problems, all of which demand immediate consideration.

The key themes extracted from the scientific discourse on Englishization show the inherent tensions around this process. The undeniable benefits of EMI are constantly juxtaposed with concerns surrounding the preservation of local linguistic identities and the potential for inequitable access to quality education. The reliance on English as the primary medium of instruction is indeed strategically advantageous. Nevertheless, it risks marginalizing indigenous languages and the rich cultural heritage they embody, creating a big problem which is particularly sensitive in Africa, where the legacy of colonialism continues to influence language policies and teaching practices. Looking for a proper balance between the practical upsides of Englishization and the necessity to maintain rare local languages remains a difficult task for politicians and educators.

The effectiveness of EMI implementation, as our findings suggest, is heavily contingent on numerous contextual factors, including protective or dismissive governmental language policies, the degree of economic development, the socio-cultural peculiarities of each specific region that hosts Englishization. Furthermore, the analysis of the empirical material highlights the critical need for differentiated pedagogical approaches that acknowledge linguistic and cultural backgrounds of students. A one-size-fits-all model of EMI is unlikely to be effective. Still, strategies that incorporate elements of translanguaging and multilingualism offer a promising pathway to more inclusive and effective learning.

The experiences of Africa and Asia do share a lot of common threads. But they also reveal distinct regional specificities of how Englishization is carried out. In Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a growing recognition of the importance of mother tongue instruction at least in early stages of schooling. North Africa presents a unique case, with the increasing adoption of EMI coexisting with the established roles of Arabic and French and growing understanding that robust teacher training to support the transition is a must. Asia is driven by relentless economic growth and a desire for competitiveness at an international stage. It has significantly expanded EMI programs, particularly in higher education. However, challenges related to uneven English proficiency, the need for specialized teaching methodology, and concerns about the erosion of local academic languages – a problem familiar to African nations – persist on this vast multicultural and multinational territory.

It is possible to say, that the two analyzed regions represent different scenarios of Englishization worth studying for all the stakeholders from other countries before choosing a vector of secondary and higher education for the near future. Englishization of education in Africa and Asia is not simply a matter of adopting a new language of instruction. It represents a profound transformation of educational systems, with unprecedented implications for culture and social life for years to come. The push for EMI offers a trajectory towards the desired goals of global participation and economic advancement, but necessitates a careful and critical approach that should prioritize inclusivity and acknowledge the potential difficulties that come hand in hand with Englishization.

Investing in comprehensive teacher training programs which can equip educators with all the necessary skills to teach effectively under EMI policies and tapping into students’ existing linguistic repertoires can be viable responses to the abovementioned challenges alongside with the research on the long-term impact of EMI on student learning outcomes, career options, and the development of societies. Making informed evidence-based educational policy decisions is crucial like never before. By engaging in a thoughtful dialogue and learning from the documented experiences on two different continents, we can ensure that the ultimate success of Englishization will depend on our collective commitment to neutralize obstacles with foresight, sensitivity, and a steadfast dedication to the principles of equity.

¹ Kirkpatrick A. The Languages of Higher Education in East and Southeast Asia: Will EMI Lead to Englishisation? In: Fenton-Smith B., Humphreys P., Walkinshaw I. (eds) English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific: From Policy to Pedagogy. Cham: Springer; 2017. p. 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0_2

² Dearden J. English as a Medium of Instruction – A Growing Global Phenomenon. London: British Council; 2014. Available at: https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/e484_emi_-_cover_option_3_final_web.pdf (accessed 10.07.2024).

³ Brinton D.M., Snow M.A., Wesche M.B. Content-Based Second Language Instruction. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers; 1989.

⁴ Coyle D., Hood P., Marsh D. CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010. Available at: https://assets.cambridge.org/97805211/30219/excerpt/9780521130219_excerpt.pdf (accessed 10.07.2024).

⁵ Macaro E. English Medium Instruction. A Research Agenda for a Worldwide Phenomenon. In: Coonan C.M., Bier A., Ballarin E. (eds) La didattica delle lingue nel nuovo millennio. 2018. p. 15–21. http://doi.org/10.30687/978-88-6969-227-7/001

⁶ Wilkinson R., Walsh M.L. Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education. From Theory to Practice – Selected Papers from the 2013 ICLHE Conference. Berlin: Peter Lang Verlag; 2015. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-05109-4

⁷ Airey J. EAP, EMI or CLIL? In: Hyland K. (eds) The Routledge Handbook of English for Academic Purposes. Milton Park: Routledge; 2016. p. 71–83. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315657455

⁸ Dearden J. English as a Medium of Instruction – A Growing Global Phenomenon.

⁹ Tsou W., Kao S.M. Introduction. In: Tsou W., Kao S.M. (eds) Resources for Teaching English for Specific Purposes. Taipei: Bookman; 2016. p. 1–12.

¹⁰ Dafouz E., Smit U. ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University. Cham: Palgrave Pivot; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23463-8

¹¹ Coyle D., Hood P., Marsh D. CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning.

¹² García O., Wei L. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan; 2014. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765

¹³ Dearden J. English as a Medium of Instruction – A Growing Global Phenomenon.

¹⁴ Kirkpatrick A. The Languages of Higher Education in East and Southeast Asia: Will EMI Lead to Englishisation?

¹⁵ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice. Bristol: Multilingual Matters; 2005. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853597718

¹⁶ Canagarajah A.S. Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice. New York: Routledge; 2004. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410611840

¹⁷ Wilkinson R. English-Medium Instruction at a Dutch University: Challenges and Pitfalls. In: Doiz A., Lasagabaster D., Sierra J.M. (eds) English-Medium Instruction at Universities: Global Challenges. Bristol: Multilingual Matters; 2013. p. 3–24. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847698162-005

¹⁸ Dafouz E., Smit U. ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University.

¹⁹ García O., Wei L. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education.

²⁰ Galloway N., Kriukow J., Numajiri T. Internationalisation, Higher Education and the Growing Demand for English: An Investigation into the English Medium of Instruction (EMI) Movement in China and Japan. London: The British Council; 2017. Available at: https://tinyurl.com/ms2wz2jy (accessed 10.07.2024).

²¹ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice.

²² Badwan K. Exploring the Potential for English as a Medium of Insturction in Tunisian Higher Education. In: Teaching for Success. Project Report. London: The British Council; 2019. Available at: https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/623468 (accessed 10.07.2024).

²³ Dafouz E., Smit U. ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University; Fenton-Smith B., Humphreys P., Walkinshaw I. English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific: From Policy to Pedagogy. Cham: Springer; 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0; Griffiths C. The Practice of English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) Around the World. Cham: Springer; 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30613-6

²⁴ Boukadi S., Troudi S. English Education Policy in Tunisia, Issues of Language Policy in Post-Revolution Tunisia. In: Kirkpatrick R. (eds) English Language Education Policy in the Middle East and North Africa. Cham: Springer; 2017. p. 257–277. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46778-8_15

²⁵ Skutnabb-Kangas T. Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? New York: Routledge; 2000. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410605191

²⁶ Maniates S. Challenges around Improving Learning Outcomes through Mother Tongue Language of Instruction Policy in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa. Duke University; 2018. Available at: https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6eccbc23-5811-41c4-841a-67418eb854b0/content (accessed 10.07.2024).

²⁷ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice; Bamgbose A. Language of Instruction Policy and Practice in Africa. Office for Education in Africa. UNESCO; 2004.

²⁸ Maniates S. Challenges around Improving Learning Outcomes through Mother Tongue Language of Instruction Policy in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa.

²⁹ Boukadi S., Troudi S. English Education Policy in Tunisia, Issues of Language Policy in Post-Revolution Tunisia.

³⁰ Baker W. Culture and Identity through English as a Lingua Franca: Rethinking Concepts and Goals in Intercultural Communication. Berlin, München, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501502149

³¹ Ibid.

³² Jenkins J. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge; 2009.

³³ Jenkins J., Mauranen A. Linguistic Diversity on the EMI Campus: Insider Accounts of the use of English and Other Languages in Universities within Asia, Australasia and Europe. London: Routledge; 2019. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429020865

³⁴ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice; Canagarajah A.S. Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice.

³⁵ Maniates S. Challenges around Improving Learning Outcomes through Mother Tongue Language of Instruction Policy in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa; Read M. African Education: A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa. Africa. 1954;24(1):66–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1156736

³⁶ Ibid.

³⁷ García O., Wei L. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education.

³⁸ Jenkins J., Mauranen A. Linguistic Diversity on the EMI Campus: Insider Accounts of the use of English and Other Languages in Universities within Asia, Australasia and Europe.

³⁹ Ahmed K. Casting Arabic Culture as the “Other”: Cultural Issues in the English Curriculum. In: Gitsaki C. (eds) Teaching and Learning in the Arab World. New York: Peter Lang; 2011. p. 119–137.

⁴⁰ Baker W. Culture and Identity through English as a Lingua Franca: Rethinking Concepts and Goals in Intercultural Communication.

⁴¹ Ibid.

⁴² Baker W. Culture and Identity through English as a Lingua Franca: Rethinking Concepts and Goals in Intercultural Communication.

⁴³ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice; Byram M. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge; 2004. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203219300

⁴⁴ Ramanathan V. The English-Vernacular Divide: Postcolonial Language Politics and Practice.

⁴⁵ Byram M. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.

⁴⁶ Dafouz E., Smit U. ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University; Fenton-Smith B., Humphreys P., Walkinshaw I. English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific: From Policy to Pedagogy.

⁴⁷ Jenkins J., Mauranen A. Linguistic Diversity on the EMI Campus: Insider Accounts of the use of English and Other Languages in Universities within Asia, Australasia and Europe.

⁴⁸ Seidu M., Ayoke E., Tamanja A. Report on Teacher Capacity for Local Language Instruction. Winneba: University of Education; 2008.

⁴⁹ Tsou W., Baker W. English-Medium Instruction Translanguaging Practices in Asia. Singapore: Springer; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3001-9; García O., Wei L. Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education.

⁵⁰ Canagarajah A.S. Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice.

⁵¹ Jenkins J., Mauranen A. Linguistic Diversity on the EMI Campus: Insider Accounts of the use of English and Other Languages in Universities within Asia, Australasia and Europe.

⁵² Read M. African Education: A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa.

⁵³ Maniates S. Challenges around Improving Learning Outcomes through Mother Tongue Language of Instruction Policy in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa; Language in Education Policy [Electronic resource]. Available at: https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Policies/GET/LanguageEducationPolicy1997.pdf?ver=2007-08-22-083918-000 (accessed 10.07.2024); National Syllabus for Ghanaian Languages and Culture: Primary 1–3. [Electronic resource]. Available at: https://mingycomputersgh.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/preamble-ghanaian-languages-p1-3-sept-2012-eredec2.pdf (accessed 10.07.2024); Mother Tongue Teachers’ Competencies Assessment (Mttca) 2019 Report. Reading for Ethiopia’s Achievement Developed, Monitoring and Evaluation (Read M and E). Washington: American Institutes for Research; 2020. Available at: https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00WR4K.pdf (accessed 10.07.2024).

⁵⁴ Seidu M., Ayoke E., Tamanja A. Report on Teacher Capacity for Local Language Instruction. Winneba: University of Education; 2008.

⁵⁵ Nigeria Certificate in Education Minimum Standards for General Education Courses. Garki: National Commission for Colleges of Education; 2012. Available at: http://www.ncceonline.edu.ng/NCCE-Digitization/minstandard/new_cul_pdf/general_edu.pdf (accessed 10.07.2024).

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⁵⁷ Boukadi S., Troudi S. English Education Policy in Tunisia, Issues of Language Policy in Post-revolution Tunisia.

⁵⁸ Badwan K. Exploring the Potential for English as a Medium of Insturction in Tunisian Higher Education. In: Teaching for Success. Project Report.

⁵⁹ Byram M. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.

⁶⁰ Ahmed K. Casting Arabic Culture as the “Other”: Cultural Issues in the English Curriculum.

⁶¹ Skutnabb-Kangas T. Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?

⁶² Tsou W., Kao S.M. Overview of EMI Development. In: Tsou W., Kao S.M. (eds) English as a Medium of Instruction in Higher Education: Implementations and Classroom Practices in Taiwan. Singapore: Springer; 2017. p. 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4645-2_1

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⁶⁹ Kirkpatrick A. English as a Medium of Instruction in East and Southeast Asian Universities. In: Murray N., Scarino A. (eds) Dynamic Ecologies. Multilingual Education. Dordrecht: Springer; 2014. p. 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7972-3_2

⁷⁰ Dewi A. English as a Medium of Instruction in Indonesian Higher Education: A Study of Lecturers’ Perceptions. In: Fenton-Smith B., Humphreys P., Walkinshaw I. (eds) English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific. Cham: Springer; 2017. p. 241–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51976-0_13

⁷¹ Fenton-Smith B., Humphreys P., Walkinshaw I. English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Asia-Pacific: From Policy to Pedagogy; Tsou W., Kao S.M. Overview of EMI Development.

⁷² Jenkins J., Mauranen A. Linguistic Diversity on the EMI Campus: Insider Accounts of the use of English and Other Languages in Universities within Asia, Australasia and Europe.

Sobre autores

Dmitriy Khramchenko

Autor responsável pela correspondência
Email: d.khramchenko@inno.mgimo.ru
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-3038-8459
Código SPIN: 1579-6336
Scopus Author ID: 57221936139
Researcher ID: N-8008-2018

Dr.Sci. (Philol.), Associate Professor, Professor of the Department
of the English Language 4

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