Health risk assessment associated with indoor air pollution by metals and metalloids in PM2.5: a cross-sectional study

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BACKGROUND: Fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm (PM2.5) is among the most hazardous atmospheric pollutants for human health. In Russia, no prior studies have assessed population health risks associated with indoor air contamination by PM2.5 containing potentially toxic metals and metalloids.

AIM: This work aimed to examine indoor air PM2.5 concentrations, investigate the content of metals and metalloids within PM2.5, and assess the associated inhalation health risks in Chelyabinsk.

METHODS: Samples were collected in university classrooms (n = 3), laboratories (n = 3), dormitory rooms (n = 4), and residential apartments (n = 14) in Chelyabinsk during seasons of low PM2.5 pollution (November–March) and high pollution (April–October) in 2024–2025. PM2.5 samples were obtained using cascade impactors on polycarbonate filters. Air PM2.5 concentrations were calculated from the mass increment of filters relative to the volume of sampled air. Concentrations of metals and metalloids (Al, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. These data were used to calculate carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks.

RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were observed between the indoor environments during either the low-pollution (p = 0.287) or high-pollution (p = 0.966) season. However, concentrations differed significantly between the two seasons (p < 0.001). In the low-pollution season, PM2.5 levels ranged 5–31 μg/m3 (median, 16 μg/m3). In the high-pollution season, PM2.5 concentrations ranged 13–59 μg/m3 (median, 32 μg/m3). Non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed that respiratory effects (HIresp) exceeded neurological effects (HIneuro). In adults, non-carcinogenic risk was minimal or within acceptable ranges; in children, depending on exposure scenario, risks ranged from high (HIresp = 6.42) and moderate (HIresp 3.10–3.75; HIneuro 3.17–5.19) to acceptable. Carcinogenic risks for both adults and children across exposure scenarios remained within acceptable limits (total risk, 5.71 × 10–6 to 4.66 × 10–5).

CONCLUSION: The identified high and moderate levels of non-carcinogenic health risk for children necessitate the development of targeted intervention measures.

About the authors

Tatyana G. Krupnova

South Ural State University

Author for correspondence.
Email: krupnovatg@susu.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0862-710X
SPIN-code: 3000-8535

Cand. Sci. (Chemistry), Associate Professor

Russian Federation, Chelyabinsk

Olga V. Rakova

South Ural State University

Email: rakovaov@susu.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-5788-5933
SPIN-code: 6508-1984

Cand. Sci. (Chemistry)

Russian Federation, Chelyabinsk

Svetlana V. Gavrilkina

South Urals Federal Research Center of Mineralogy and Geoecology of the Urals Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Email: gidrosv@mail.ru
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9892-226X
SPIN-code: 4626-8291

Cand. Sci. (Geology and Mineralogy)

Russian Federation, Miass

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